The procedure of śāktopāya of which Mantra is the main means is to purify thought-constructs and then by creating a series of pure vikalpas by the contact with śuddhavidyā, they finally become transformed into śakti, which manifest the knowledge related to śakti.
The consciousness, whose innermost nature is autonomy (svātantrya), externalizes itself and assumes different forms. During that process, by gradual condensation, consciousness assumes the form of limited self (aṇu). The aṇu is limited by five kañcukas in terms of action, knowledge, attachment to only something, limitation by time, space and causality. Therefore, the consciousness that freely externalizes, limits itself when it becomes intent on the externally projected objectivity. In this process, ‘chit’ becomes ‘chitta’, which consists of buddhi, manas, ahaṅkāra, and of the impressions accumulated through activity. Kṣemarāja describes chitta of which māyāpramātā consists in the following way:
Chitta is predominant in the sphere of prāṇa and body. The sphere of void also consists of the saṃskāras (impressions, dispositions) of the chitta, otherwise, one who awakes (from the experience of the void) would not be able to follow one’s duties.
This is also expressed in the first sūtra of the third chapter of śivasūtra which reads, ‘the individual self [ātmā] is chitta’. In Pratyabhijñāhṛdayaṃ, Kṣemarāja clarifies the nature of chitta:
‘Chiti (universal consciousness) itself descending from (the stage of) cetanā (the uncontracted conscious stage) becomes chitta (individual consciousness) inasmuch as it becomes contracted (saṃkoca) in conformity with the objects of consciousness (cetya)’.
Thus, it is the same consciousness that limits itself to form chitta when intent on reflecting the objectivity. Kṣemarāja writes, ‘Chitta or mind is that which colored by the desire for sense objects is always engaged in their ascertainment, appropriation to the self and thought construct.’ When this chitta however, desirous of contemplating its own nature, turns inward, it becomes Mantra. ‘Chittam mantraH’ reads śivasūtra 2:1. Kṣemarāja explains:
‘Chitta is that which ponders over the highest reality. In other words, it is consciousness that ponders over prāsāda, praṇava and other Mantras which constitute the essential characteristic of the perfect I-consciousness. That by which one deliberates secretly, i.e., ponders inwardly as being non-different from the highest Lord is Mantra. Thus, the chitta itself becomes Mantra’.
Therefore, Mantra cannot be separated from a Yogin who repeats it. This is because the Yogin is a knower who is ultimately identical with the highest knower and Mantra is consciousness which in this system is identical with the Word. Thus apprehension of the Self constitutes the real potency and essence of the Mantra. This apprehension is possible because Mantra is that which expresses (vācaka) and that which is expressed or aimed at (vācya) by the Mantra is the highest reality. Chitta reflects on the nature of the highest reality – cetyate vimṛśyate anena paraṃ tattavmiti cittaṃ. As a result of that process, chitta identifies with the Mantra so that it becomes one with it.
According to Abhinavagupta – the highest limb of Yoga, which is the only direct means, is ‘sattarka’ or right reasoning. The right reasoning is the result of either spontaneous knowledge that develops in a person in which case one is considered to be initiated by the Goddess of his own consciousness or through the instruction of a teacher and study of śāstras. Abhinavagupta describes this process in the following way:
‘The role of the teacher is to select an appropriate āgama text for a disciple to study. The role of the āgama, on the other hand, is to give rise to the proper type of vikalpa (śuddha vikalpa) which is instrumental in generating the series of homogenous thoughts free from doubt. This series of homogenous determinate thoughts is called right reasoning (sattarka). And this right reasoning is called creative contemplation [bhāvanā]’.
As the new, more purified type of vikalpa arises, it neutralizes the impure Vikalpa which is the cause of bondage. This new vikalpa then becomes the cause of the ascent (abhyudaya) which leads one to attain one’s own nature. The very nature of consciousness is ‘nirvikalpa’ state, which is also said to be one’s own or innermost nature (svabhāva). Now, the impression or imposition on that svabhāva of various pure properties such as Mantra is called purification. Continuous listening of the nature of the Self, contemplating its nature, and meditating on it helps create layers of pure thought-constructs, which in the beginning is indistinct but as practice progresses, it becomes more and more distinct. In Tantrāloka, Abhinavagupta describes this process:
‘One desirous of entering the nirvikalpa nature of Parameśvara should, first of all, purify thought-constructs. The differentiated thought, once purified, generates in effect another differentiated thought purified by itself, this another similar to itself, this yet another one, and this another one of the same kind. The purity which is met in these four forms of differentiated thinking is of ever greater clarity, i.e., not manifest, more manifest, in the process of becoming manifest and manifest. In the next stage (fifth), it then becomes even more manifest in order to become finally very manifest. In all these moments, from the first on, are noted then various intermediate gradations. Thus, the result of this purification is that finally consciousness, nourished by the above-mentioned pure vikalpas, attains the purity whose essential nature is freedom from differentiated thought. Therefore, the light of Bhairava, innate with consciousness, becomes finally manifested in all its evidence in those who over and over reflect its nature’.
According to dualist śaiva siddhānta doctrine, the rituals are of paramount importance for attaining mokṣa. This is because according to them, the mala is a substance and therefore can only be removed by action, i.e., by the performance of the rituals. According to the non-dual Kashmir śaiva school on the other hand, although rituals retain an important role, yet they are understood to be for those who have not become sufficiently blessed by the śakti. Abhinavagupta explains:
‘Thus, only by the inner form of oblation the attainment of the purpose is really fulfilled but in truth, it is accomplished in one in whom the absorption has occurred, even then external sacrifices and rituals should be performed for the purpose of the removal of limitations. The person who has not attained absorption of that nature, for him external form of ritual is the main form. By the practice of it, he attains absorption. However, even for him, the inner form of ritual is essential for the removal of the state of the bonded soul (paśu). When the external form of ritual is not firmly established in his essence, then it is because of the strength of his desire that it becomes the giver of purity.’
Furthermore, being non-dualist, they have reinterpreted the rituals of the dualist śaiva school and its orthodox division of things into those that are ritually pure and those that are impure. Kaula rituals, for example, involve contact with persons normally perceived as impure. From the metaphysical point of view, there are two types of ignorance, bauddha and pauruṣa ajñāna. The former is essentially conceptual ignorance while the latter is caused by āṇavamala, that is, ignorance inherent in the limited self which is the result of the contraction of consciousness. Therefore the only means of attaining liberation is knowledge which removes ignorance by enabling the limited mind to recognize its identity with śiva. Abhinavagupta writes, ‘According to this system, knowledge is the cause of liberation because it stands to oppose the ignorance which is the cause of bondage.’
From the above discussion, we have seen that for the Mantra to be efficient, a Yogin must penetrate that śabdarāśi or aham into which the Mantra and his mind dissolve. The importance of enlivening of this highest aspect of the Word is also emphasized in the importance given to a teacher in the process of initiation. For successful initiation, the right teacher is absolutely necessary. The right teacher is one who has himself tapped into the potency of Mantra and in whom the perfect I-consciousness is fully awakened, as it is only then that the Mantra becomes soteriologically meaningful.
Furthermore, it is said that the highest type of teacher is one who has attained initiation from the Goddess of his own consciousness. Therefore, the emphasis is naturally placed on knowledge, which in this context means the direct experience of the Divine. Thus rituals are not bound by the prohibition and injunction in regard to what is pure and impure. The important element is that they help the consciousness develop and rise to the level that guarantees one absolute freedom from bondage. In regard to the materials used in rituals, Abhinavagupta declares, ‘The substance proper for the performance of the rituals is that one which brings forth the submerged consciousness into prominence.’
Furthermore, in the context of rituals, the ritual act is perceived as a means which enables the mind to experience the source of thought free from Vikalpa.
The deity is conceived as being identical with this non-dual consciousness while the act of worship is seen as the process of contemplation. The result of this is the purification of dualistic thought (vikalpa) which eventually culminates in liberation.
Thus, the important point of our discussion is that even during rituals, such as initiation, the main prerequisite for its success is the ability of a teacher to take repose in his own Self by enlivening the potency of the Mantra (Mantravīrya). Rāmakaṇṭha explains:
‘This same consciousness that attends to the instant the intention to utter mantra (wells up within it, just before its actual recitation) corresponds to the act of laying hold of the Self. It is taught in the scriptures that the Master lays hold of his own Self or that of his disciple in the course of certain prescribed rites such as those of initiation. Thus the Spandavṛtti declares: During the initiation, the Master must lay hold of the Self (ātman) with the mind.’
We have already seen in śivasūtra 2:1 that the mind of a Yogin becomes Mantra. This mind attains its full potential by enlivening the potency of the mantra, which is identical to śiva. The realization of iṣṭadevatā through Mantra is the realization that the countless creations and dissolutions of the universe are simply the waves of one’s own consciousness. This knowledge, which is the result of the Master’s ability to identify with one’s own Self is a gift of a teacher to a disciple. Kṣemarāja writes:
‘On the occasion of the initiation for the purpose of uniting (the Self of the disciple with the universal consciousness), the impartation of this knowledge is the favor conferred on the disciple. The ācārya having knowledge of this attainment justifies his title of ācārya by uniting the Self of the disciple with śiva. This is the initiation for liberation confirmed by one’s personal realization which gives to putraka etc., the knowledge of the highest nature of śiva.’
Now we shall examine the nature of the rituals and the application of Mantras in non-dual Kashmir Shaivism. We will accomplish this by giving three examples that vividly illustrate śaiva’s internalization of the rituals, the importance of māntric utterance and the role of a teacher in enlivening of Mantravīrya.
In chapter twelve of Tantrasāra, Abhinavagupta explains the significance of bathing, which are preliminary rites that precede the performance of the rituals. In the very beginning, he defines impurity as a wrong conception by means of which one conceives oneself as different from consciousness. Purity, on the other hand, is the absorption in the pure nature of Maheśvara. The removal of that impurity, in the form of limited knowledge, is purification and it is achieved only by means of the absorption into Maheśvara. Some attain that absorption instantaneously, while others require means to attain it. Therefore, these means in regard to some are bathing and other rituals.
Bathing is of two types, i.e., external and internal. The internal bathing is done by means of concentration of the mind through the process of application of various types of dhāraṇas in the center of the earth etc., in order to become identical with that wheel of deities. The external bathing is purification accomplished by the attainment of the identity with a mantra upon which one merges into śiva. Abhinavagupta describes the procedure of external bathing as keeping one’s mind steadily concentrated on the Mantra, given to him by the Guru, upon which one should follow the track of the cows while dust is still present in the air. One is supposed to enter and should make three strides in the dust created by the cows. This is known as Pārthivabath. In the same way, one should purify the whole body, beginning with the head and ending with feet, by uttering the mantra of śiva with its five limbs – īśāna is the head, Tatpuruṣa is the face, Aghora is the heart, Vāmadeva is the hidden parts of the body and Sadyojāya is the whole body. Then having cleansed the body with the mantra, one should plunge into the water repeating the mantra of śiva with its auxiliary parts. This is known as bathing with water. Taking ashes from the sacrificial fire, one should burn impurities present on the head, face, heart, genitals, and the feet with it while uttering the mantra ‘phaṭ’. When this is done one should throw a handful of these ashes on the head while repeating the mantra of śiva with its five limbs. This is known as bathing with the ashes. One should move back and forth in that pleasing air remembering the mantra given to him by his Guru, in his heart. This is known as bathing with the air. One should bring a mantra into one’s mind and should remain concentrated there fixing his concentration on the void (ākāśa). This is known as bathing in the void. One, who immerses oneself in the light of the sun and the moon, identifying himself with śiva, is cleaned of all impurities. This type of bathing is called Soma and Arka. The last type is bathing in the Self (ātma). In Tantrāloka, Abhinavagupta describes it in the following way:
‘The very Self is the supreme Lord Himself; He is free from disciplines established in spiritual texts. He is like great lake in extension and depth, the universe should dissolve therein upon which one becomes pure and the cause of purification for others. Thus, these eight baths provide gradually an even superior purity. In all of them, it is necessary to propitiate the mantra in every regard that has been made identical with our own Self’.
Similarly, in chapter thirteen of the same text, Abhinavagupta describes sāmayika type of initiation. If a disciple is desirous of receiving initiation, he is first given consecration [adhivāsanā]. During that rite in order to reveal to the disciple his mantra, the teacher brings him blindfolded in front of a manḍāla where the ritual is performed. Then he makes him sit on his knees and throw flowers into it. After this, the teacher, by removing the veil from his eyes, discloses the mantra to him. The teacher and disciple spent a night at the place of performance of adhivāsana. If the disciple has an inauspicious dream during that night, he narrates it to the teacher. However, the teacher does not tell him the meaning of it but performs certain rituals of purification if he deems a dream inauspicious. After this, the teacher should penetrate into the various chakras of the disciple and make him have the partial experience of the divine. Abhinavagupta writes:
‘Then worshiping the Lord in a formal manner and placing the disciple before the Lord, the teacher enters the body of the disciple through the channel of the vital energy and should touch the disciple’s six cardinal spots, i.e., the heart, the throat, the palate, the forehead, the aperture above the head (brahmarandhra) and the dvādaśānta; thus touching the six superintending deities he should conceive eight purificatory rites in each of the deities and making the vital energy of the disciple rest for a moment in each spot he should come back again. In this way, when forty-eight purificatory rites are performed on a person, attainment of a portion of Rudra occurs in him with the result that he becomes Samayin. Then he should worship the mantra with flowers and so on.’
In chapter fourteen of Tantrasāra, Abhinavagupta describes the procedure of the purification of the six paths, which takes place after the completion of the paśuhoma. After this, a teacher brings the disciple in front of him and places all of six paths into his body by the performance of adhvanyāsa. By doing this, he purifies the auspicious and inauspicious deeds of a disciple who desires mokṣa and only inauspicious ones of a disciple who desires bhoga. This is because, ‘the distinction in attainment lies in the nature of one’s latent impressions [vāsanā], for mantras grant different result according to one’s latent desires.’ Thus asserting the nature of the latent desires of the disciple, the teacher reflects on the principal mantra internally and then meditates on his identity with śiva. This purifies all the six paths of the disciple’s body. Furthermore, the teacher should identify his consciousness with the disciple. Abhinavagupta writes:
‘In this way, the body, from the small toe to the end of dvādaśānta, as well as his consciousness should be made one with the body and the consciousness of the disciple. Having accomplished this, he should rest in the immense like of bliss, the essence of which is autonomy and Lordship, perfectly full with the will, knowledge, and activity, in the Lord of the host of deities, full of all paths, the entirety of the sphere of the entities terminating in consciousness. By means of this kind of initiation with the self of the disciple, the disciple becomes identical with the supreme Lord.’
We can see, from the above examples, how rituals are interpreted by Abhinavagupta. In the first example, impurity is described as ignorance, while purity is said to be knowledge in the form of identification with śiva. The external bathing is the purification attained by gaining the identity with mantravīrya. This is a gradual procedure that begins with the pārthiva type of bathing and culminates in bathing in one’s own Self. In the second and third examples, we can see that the teacher’s intent to impart the knowledge and in particular his realization of the potency of the mantra is that which enables a disciple to have a glimpse of the innermost reality which is his own Self.